Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole significantly reduces the risk of nocardiosis in solid organ transplant recipients: systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis

Background: Whether trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) prophylaxis prevents nocardiosis in solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients is controversial. Objectives: To assess the effect of TMP-SMX in the prevention of nocardiosis after SOT, its dose-response relationship, its effect on preventing disseminated nocardiosis, and the risk of TMP-SMX resistance in case of breakthrough infection. Methods: A systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis. Data sources: MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Web of Science Core Collection, and Scopus up to 19 September 2023. Study eligibility criteria: (a) Risk of nocardiosis between SOT recipients with and without TMP-SMX prophylaxis, or (b) sufficient details to determine the rate of TMP-SMX resistance in breakthrough nocardiosis. Participants: SOT recipients. Intervention: TMP-SMX prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis. Assessment of risk of bias: Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies-of Exposure (ROBINS-E) for comparative studies; dedicated tool for non-comparative studies. Methods of data synthesis: For our primary outcome (i.e. to determine the effect of TMP-SMX on the risk of nocardiosis), a one-step mixed-effects regression model was used to estimate the association between the outcome and the exposure. Univariate and multivariable unconditional regression models were used to adjust for the potential confounding effects. Certainty of evidence was assessed using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. Results: Individual data from three case-control studies were obtained (260 SOT recipients with nocardiosis and 519 uninfected controls). TMP-SMX prophylaxis was independently associated with a significantly decreased risk of nocardiosis (adjusted OR = 0.3, 95% CI 0.18–0.52, moderate certainty of evidence). Variables independently associated with an increased risk of nocardiosis were older age, current use of corticosteroids, high calcineurin inhibitor concentration, recent acute rejection, lower lymphocyte count, and heart transplant. Breakthrough infections (66/260, 25%) were generally susceptible to TMP-SMX (pooled proportion 98%, 95% CI 92–100). Conclusions: In SOT recipients, TMP-SMX prophylaxis likely reduces the risk of nocardiosis. Resistance appears uncommon in case of breakthrough infection.