Three-dimensional printing accuracy analysis for medical applications across a wide variety of printers

Purpose: Three-dimensional (3D) printing has had a significant impact on patient care. However, there is a lack of standardization in quality assurance (QA) to ensure printing accuracy and precision given multiple printing technologies, variability across vendors, and inter-printer reliability issues. We investigated printing accuracy on a diverse selection of 3D printers commonly used in the medical field. Approach: A specially designed 3D printing QA phantom was periodically printed on 16 printers used in our practice, covering five distinct printing technologies and eight different vendors. Longitudinal data were acquired over six months by printing the QA phantom monthly on each printer. Qualitative assessment and quantitative measurements were obtained for each printed phantom. Accuracy and precision were assessed by comparing quantitative measurements with reference values of the phantom. Data were then compared among printer models, vendors, and printing technologies; longitudinal trends were also analyzed. Results: Differences in 3D printing accuracy across printers were observed. Material jetting and vat photopolymerization printers were found to be the most accurate. Printers using the same 3D printing technology but from different vendors also showed differences in accuracy, most notably between vat photopolymerization printers from two different vendors. Furthermore, differences in accuracy were found between printers from the same vendor using the same printing technology, but different models/generations. Conclusions: These results show how factors such as printing technology, vendor, and printer model can impact 3D printing accuracy, which should be appropriately considered in practice to avoid potential medical or surgical errors.