TY - JOUR
T1 - The long-term effects of consecutive COVID-19 waves on mental health
AU - Novotný, Jan Sebastian
AU - Gonzalez-Rivas, Juan Pablo
AU - Kunzová, Šárka
AU - Skladaná, Mária
AU - Pospíšilová, Anna
AU - Polcrová, Anna
AU - Vassilaki, Maria
AU - Medina-Inojosa, Jose Ramon
AU - Lopez-Jimenez, Francisco
AU - Geda, Yonas Endale
AU - Stokin, Gorazd Bernard
N1 - Publisher Copyright:
Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Royal College of Psychiatrists.
PY - 2023/12/19
Y1 - 2023/12/19
N2 - Background Although several studies have documented the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health, the long-term effects remain unclear. Aims To examine longitudinal changes in mental health before and during the consecutive COVID-19 waves in a well-established probability sample. Method An online survey was completed by the participants of the COVID-19 add-on study at four time points: pre-COVID-19 period (2014-2015, n = 1823), first COVID-19 wave (April to May 2020, n = 788), second COVID-19 wave (August to October 2020, n = 532) and third COVID-19 wave (March to April 2021, n = 383). Data were collected via a set of validated instruments, and analysed with latent growth models. Results During the pandemic, we observed a significant increase in stress levels (standardised β = 0.473, P < 0.001) and depressive symptoms (standardised β = 1.284, P < 0.001). The rate of increase in depressive symptoms (std. covariance = 0.784, P = 0.014), but not in stress levels (std. covariance = 0.057, P = 0.743), was associated with the pre-pandemic mental health status of the participants. Further analysis showed that secondary stressors played a predominant role in the increase in mental health difficulties. The main secondary stressors were loneliness, negative emotionality associated with the perception of COVID-19 disease, lack of resilience, female gender and younger age. Conclusions The surge in stress levels and depressive symptoms persisted across all three consecutive COVID-19 waves. This persistence is attributable to the effects of secondary stressors, and particularly to the status of mental health before the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings reveal mechanisms underlying the surge in mental health difficulties during the COVID-19 waves, with direct implications for strategies promoting mental health during pandemics.
AB - Background Although several studies have documented the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health, the long-term effects remain unclear. Aims To examine longitudinal changes in mental health before and during the consecutive COVID-19 waves in a well-established probability sample. Method An online survey was completed by the participants of the COVID-19 add-on study at four time points: pre-COVID-19 period (2014-2015, n = 1823), first COVID-19 wave (April to May 2020, n = 788), second COVID-19 wave (August to October 2020, n = 532) and third COVID-19 wave (March to April 2021, n = 383). Data were collected via a set of validated instruments, and analysed with latent growth models. Results During the pandemic, we observed a significant increase in stress levels (standardised β = 0.473, P < 0.001) and depressive symptoms (standardised β = 1.284, P < 0.001). The rate of increase in depressive symptoms (std. covariance = 0.784, P = 0.014), but not in stress levels (std. covariance = 0.057, P = 0.743), was associated with the pre-pandemic mental health status of the participants. Further analysis showed that secondary stressors played a predominant role in the increase in mental health difficulties. The main secondary stressors were loneliness, negative emotionality associated with the perception of COVID-19 disease, lack of resilience, female gender and younger age. Conclusions The surge in stress levels and depressive symptoms persisted across all three consecutive COVID-19 waves. This persistence is attributable to the effects of secondary stressors, and particularly to the status of mental health before the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings reveal mechanisms underlying the surge in mental health difficulties during the COVID-19 waves, with direct implications for strategies promoting mental health during pandemics.
KW - COVID-19
KW - depressive symptoms
KW - longitudinal
KW - stress levels
KW - stressors
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U2 - 10.1192/bjo.2023.620
DO - 10.1192/bjo.2023.620
M3 - Article
AN - SCOPUS:85180973632
SN - 2056-4724
VL - 10
JO - BJPsych Open
JF - BJPsych Open
IS - 1
M1 - e15
ER -